In the Ottoman Empire, within the processes of cultural and artistic creativity, music embodied the most highly respected and favorite activity, and at the same time enjoyed the highest sense of dignity. (Judetz, E., 1998:11). In to their courts, the Ottoman sultans brought eminent musicians and composers of different countries, such as Iran, Egypt, India, Uzbekistan, Greece and France. These musicians were employed as state-sponsored musicians who enjoyed professional prestige and political acknowledgement. The Ottoman musical scene included members of other, smaller ethnic groups, such as Greeks, Jews, and Armenians. It is precisely this broadness that made this tradition last. (Bolat, L: 1-4). Within this context we will mention the fact that the history of Turkish music includes a person from the region of Macedonia - Niyazi from Skopje, who lived in the 15th century.
        It is evident that music influenced national entity since the Ottoman state and its rulers were not only patrons of the arts, but also participated in artistic activities with their personal artistic contributions. Thus, from the total of 38 sultans, about ten were professional musicians: performers, composers, or both (www.C\W..\Osmanli and Great-Ottoman Turkish Civilization from Yeni Turkiye.html). The courts included schools called Enderun, which were the cores of dissemination of Turkish traditional-artistic music (the first school of this sort was formed in 1363 by Murad I, with the conquest of Edrene) (Tanrikorur, C. 1989:501).
        To a certain extent, Ottoman music is a developed and sophisticated synthesis of the makam music of the Middle East and Central Asia. As many contemporary musicologists claim, in comparison to western polyphonic tonal music, Turkish traditional music is monophonic modal music, or so-called makam music, and is a product of development and systematisation based on mathematical laws (Songar, A., 1988: 5). The tonal systems of western and Turkish traditional music are in essence an interpretation of Pythagorean modes, which have evolved into different "dialects" throughout the centuries.
        We shall therefore present a comprehensive view of the basic features of the two systems which are in fact a reflection of the musical thought of two culturally different civilisations.
 

        1. The structure of tone-series in western and Turkish music and their process of formation

        The main difference between the tonal systems of western and Turkish music above all lies in the structure of the tone-series.Western music has been based on the tempered system for more than three centuries. It is a tonal system that includes 12 equal semitones.As opposed to that, the tonal system of Turkish music includes 24 tones that are placed at unequal lengths. One should stress that the tone-series of the contemporary tonal system in Turkish traditional music is in essence identical with the tone-series established in the 13th century. Namely, the tone-series established and elaborated by the renowned 13th century musician Safiyuddin Urmevi (1237-1294) in his theoretical work Kitab u'l Edvar contains 17 tones. The contemporary tonal system contains almost exactly the same tone-series (with small changes in the names of some tones), and is enriched with the integration of seven additional tones, with which the tone-series acquire 24 unequal tones (Akdogu, O., 1999: 13-27) (ex. no.1 - even though the nota initialis of the contemporary system is the tone C1- Chargah, to achieve a better comparison between the two tonal tone-series, the representation in the tables notes the correspondence of the order of the tones)

        The contemporary tone-series according to Arel-Ezgi-Uzdilek (20th century)

        The tone-series in both systems also differ in the processes of formation. Namely, in western music, the tonal system is created by the sequencing of 12 pure fifths, one by one. In that way a tone-series of 12 semitones is achieved, where the last tone - which actually represents the octave of the starting tone - is one comma above the basic tone. Therefore, the surplus of one comma is divided into 12 equal parts (equally for all the created tones), which causes a shift and the formation of a system whose octave contains 12 equal tones.
The process of formation of the Turkish tonal system is somewhat different. Namely, starting from the tone Chargah (C1), 12 pure fifths  (one fifth contains 31 commas) and 11 pure fifths are sequenced. Thus, in the most natural way, with the arrangement of the created tones, the 24 tones tone-series is composed. However, as opposed to the 12-tone system, the tones within this octave are not set in equal spaces (the process is presented in the following example) (Ozkan, H., 18987: 65-6).
 
 

It is interesting to add that as in western music, the basic tone-series of Turkish music are the tone-series of the tone Chargah (C1), i.e C-major.

        2. The structure of the major second  in the tonal scales

         The second important feature of differentiation between the musical systems of the two music cultures is the structure of the tones in the tone-series.In the western diatonic scale, the distance between two tones that constitute one major second is divided with a semitone. It is placed on the ideal half of this distance and represents the semitones in the tone-series. The distance between this semitone and the neighboring semitones is 4.5 Pythagorean commas. The harmonic structure, i.e the polyphony of western music is based upon this arrangement of tones.
        The essential feature of Turkish music is in the existence of so-called microtones. Namely, in Turkish music, the distance in one major second is divided into nine equal segments, called Pythagorean commas (comma = the smallest segment of the tone heard by the human ear) (Dogrus�z, N., 1980:570).

        From the nine commas the major second consists of, the intervals of 4, 5, 8, and 9 commas are used in practice (the interval of 9 commas is actually the next, i.e previous tones). The interval of 1 comma is rarely used in practice. Closest to the semitone which in the western scale consists of 4.5 commas is the tone which is here at a distance of 4 commas. Every comma is marked by a specific graphic representation, whereas the micro interval is marked with a corresponding letter.

        Because of the different calculations of the semitones in the two tonal systems (the western system has 4.5 commas, the Turkish has 4 commas), the octave in the tempered system contains 54, whereas Turkish music contains 53 commas.Presented in cents, the western system contains one semitone as equal to 100 cents, and the tone contains 200 cents. However, in Turkish music, the �semitone� contains 90, whereas the �tone� contains 204 cents.

        3. The definitions and features of the tone-series

        The tone-series in both systems differ in their definition. In Turkish music, the tone-series present a sequence of 8 tones composed of one tetrachord and one pentachord (or vice versa) named cheshni  which means "taste" (cheshni = taste). (�zkan, I., 1897: 71). The combination of different tetrachords and pentachords enables the creation of a great number of tone-series or makams. The employment of these tone-series in accordance to specific rules yields the formation of makams - the basis of Turkish music (makam = music tone, melody). Theoretically, hundreds of makams can be formed. Within the opus of Turkish music, over 500 makams are used. Nevertheless, about a hundred of them have a wider use in practice (Oransaray: www.turkmusikisi.com).

        3.1 Characteristics and classification of makams

Makams are not only typical for Turkish music; they are quite common in the music of Central Asia. Nonetheless, according to the definitions of numerous musicologists, makams in Turkish music represent tone-series governed by certain rules in terms of the movement of melody (seyir), the inter-relationship among the tonal, dominant tone and the tones on which minor alterations are made (asma karar). According to western system standards (microtonal melody), the outcome of these rules is the diatonic melody encompassing tones "outside the melody"(Tura, Y., 1988:141).

        Makams are classified into three categories:

1. Basic makams (13 makams)
2. Transposed makams (created by transposing the basic makams to other tones)
3. Compound makams (clusters of two or more makams).

        In the study of scales within western music, there is a general rule equally applicable to all scales. However, in Turkish music, the general principles applicable to all makams cannot be determined. Thus, Turkish music theory studies each makam separately.
Several makams coincide with some of the scales of the western music system, such as:
Chargah makam = C-major; Mahur makam = G-major, Ajem ashiran makam = F-major, Buselik makam = a-minor; Sultani segah makam = d-minor, and Nihavend makam = g-minor.

        4. Some features of makam tone-series versus scales in western music

        4.1. Naming the tone-series

        In western music, scales are named according to the nota initialis of the tone-series, regardless of their direction of movement.The names of makams vary depending on the height of the nota initialis, but also on the direction of movement of the melody line, called seyir (Seyir = the movement of the tone-series which produces the makam). The movements can be: 1. ascending, 2. descending, or 3. descending -ascending (Yilmaz, Z., 2001:75). In fact, the movement - which is of great importance, is not a fixed scheme but a melodic pattern which finalises the form of the composition (Judetz - Sirli, 2000:140).
 Therefore, one of the distinguishing features of Turkish music is that two makams having identical tonal structure are considered to be different depending on the typical melodic movement (Behar, C., 1987:132). For instance, the Husseyni and Muhajjer makams, in spite of their identical tone-series, are regarded as different because of their opposite direction of movement. The tone-series of the first makam is ascending, whereas the second is descending, which explains why these makams bear different names.

        Consequently, the Turkish theoreticians believe that makams are not only scales, but they are rules and principles of composition. (Hines, E., www.hinesmusic.com/What Are Makams.html).The names of makams have independent meanings and usually bear the names of regions, as well as personal names, such as Isfahan, Irak, Husseyni, Suz-i Dilara, Lalegyul, Gyulizar, and Gyuldeste.

        4.2 The function of tones in tone-series

        The function of the tones in the makam tone-series are similar to the function of the tones in western music notation scales. Namely, the tonal tone is the tone that ends the composition, and it is known as Durak (Durak = delay). In western scales, the dominant has a fixed position at the fifth tones. On the other hand, in makams, the dominant tone is the tone that forms the connection between the pentachord and the tetrachord (and vice versa). Thus, depending on the combination, the dominant named Gyuchlu (G��l� = powerful) can take the fourth or fifth tones in the tone-series. The seventh tones that has the role of leading note is called Yeden (Yeden ) and bears the distance of one or half tones from the basic tone.

        4.3 Cadence

         The Turkish music tonal system consists of three types of cadence:
    1) authentic cadence, named Tam karar (Tam karar = full decision); as in western music, it ends with the tonic;
    2) semi-cadence - Yarim karar (Yarim karar  = semi decision), which ends with the dominant (fourth or fifth tones). The semi-cadence can rarely end with the third tones, or the tonic with the descending tone-series.
    3) hanging cadence - Asma karar (Asma karar = hanging decision), which may differ in all separate makams. This cadence expresses a weak feeling of conclusion and is treated as a sort of delay in movement, usually found at the second, fourth, sixth, or seventh tones.

        4.4. Key signatures in tone-series

        In addition to the classification in minor and major scales, the classification of scales in western music also rests on the key signatures.
It is interesting to note that in Turkish music, this type of classification is impossible due to the combined key signatures that many makams contain. In the orthographic depiction of these makams, the sharps follow the flats, whereas the order of the key signatures is identical with the one in western music (�zkan, H., 1987:77)

        4.5 Expanding the tone-series

There are three ways of expanding the tone-series in Turkish music:
1. Symmetrical expansion : when the lower tetrachord (or pentachord) is transferred to the upper tonic. In this case, the structure of the tone-series remains unaltered, but the names of some of the tones change (since in the second octave the tones acquire new names).
2. Creating a new tone-series  by adding a new tetrachord (or pentachord) to the dominant, a completely new scale is acquired.
3. Borrowing: a tetrachord (or pentachord) is borrowed from a neighboring makam. This triggers the creation of new tones that do not exist in the basic tone-series of the makam (Ozkan, H., 1987:75-6).

     5. Metric and rhythmical features

        In essence, rhythm in Turkish music is expressed through rhythmical schemes known as usuls. The usul is a rhythmic group consisting of tones with different duration. At the same time, the variation in loudness of the beats must be taken into account. According to loudness, tones are divided into strong, semi-strong and weak. The usul is often called "petrified state of time" (�zkan, H., 1987:561).
        In practice, the beats are used to determine the strong and weak times.  The beats have separate names composed of syllables such as dum, tek, te, ke, tek-ka, ta-hek. Dum and te are beats of the righthand on the right knee, and ka and ke are beats of the left hand on the left knee. During the beat ta-hek, both hands are lifted at the first syllable, and dropped on the knees at the second.
        In Turkish music performance, the rhythmic structure is usually emphasized by the use of a percussion instrument (Judetz, E., 2000:15).The basic rhythmical units in western music are binary and ternary. Their combination usually results in the creation of regular rhythmical units such as 2+2 or 3+3.
        Quite contrary to that, Turkish music is abundant with metrical units - around 124. By combining the simple rhythms, 80 complex rhythmic schemes (usuls) can be created. Their rhythm might be regular or irregular, such as 2+3, 2+2+3, 3+2+3 and 2+3+3+2 (www. Ses Sistemlerki Uzerine (Dr Hanefi Ozbek).htm). One of the most frequent rhythmical patterns in Turkish music is the 9/8 irregular rhythm known as Aksak usul.
         Usuls are classified in accordance to two categories:
1. according to the content: simple  and complex
2. according to size: small  and big

     6. The basic feature of Turkish music versus western music

         In addition to the horizontal segment - melody, western music contains a vertical segment - harmony.
         On the contrary, the basic principle of development in Turkish classical music can be described as cultivisation of the melodic aspect by means of microtonal makams. This accounts for the fact that polyphonic choir performance is not a common feature of Turkish music (Bartok, B., 1949)
         Therefore the creation of works in the western music system is based on the use of complex harmonies and polyphony, whereas Turkish music operates solely through the development of monodic melodic lines.

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www.C:\W/.\Osmanli and the Great-Ottoman Turkish Civilization from Yeni Turkiye.ht